Introduction & Background
In 1861, France was one of the strongest countries in the world. This empire stretched many continents. They had trading posts and colonies in Asia, South America, and, most importantly, Africa. They had money and resources flowing in from all four corners of the globe. These resources included, but are not limited to, rubber, wood, fish, gold, and silver. These resources filled the French coffers, and everything seemed well. This prosperity lasted until Napoleon III took power. Napoleon III was descended from the continent’s master in the early 19th century, Napoleon Bonaparte, but they were very different. Napoleon III was greedy and not the best strategist on the battlefield, which were not reasonable traits when invading Mexico. This is where Maximilian I comes in. Maximilian is the younger brother of the Holy Roman Emperor and a member of the House of Hapsburg. Due to being a younger brother, he is not in line for the throne. Instead, he is put in charge of the small Austrian Navy. Also, he was the Austrian viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia for a time.
About two years before he was removed from the position of viceroy, Maximilian went to the court of Napoleon III on a diplomatic mission. During the mission, he met a group of Mexican monarchists who wanted a European power on the throne. Maximilian declined the offer since he was in a diplomatic position. Two years later, after being dismissed from the position of viceroy, he approached these monarchists again and accepted the offer. Napoleon then offered his support to Maximilian. Austria would have supported Maximilian, but they thought it would turn out badly. Many question why Napoleon III supported him, but there is one leading theory. It is that Napoleon III wanted to increase his influence across the globe and wanted to establish Maximilian as his puppet king in French Mexico. So, this is the scene in which the Second French Intervention in Mexico starts. We have a young, ambitious Austrian noble with the support of an emperor of a leading European country who is about to go to Mexico with the French army.
The Upcoming War
When Britain and Spain, two other European countries wanting to expand their influence, heard about what France would do, they called a meeting in London on October 31, 1861. At the meeting, the powers agreed to sign a tripartite pact, ensuring they would put their forces together to defeat the Mexicans. Britain and Spain merely wanted to get the loans back that they gave to Mexico, but France wanted to set up a whole empire controlled by the French government. Together, they combined their forces in preparation for the upcoming battles. Along with the French, British, and Spanish troops, there would also be some Austrian, Belgian, and Ottoman soldiers. Among this army were some Polish exiles from then-Russia and some Sudanese slave soldiers. Meanwhile, two civil wars were happening across the sea in the Americas—the Mexican Civil between the liberals led by Benito Juárez and the conservatives led by Félix Zuloaga. In the U.S., there was also a Civil War. Being the U.S., they intervened in Mexico by supporting the liberals and sending forces there to battle the conservatives.
The Invasion
The Europeans landed in Veracruz on December 8, 1861, and news about their landings spread across Mexico. The liberals saw the foreigners as a threat to their political dominance. Meanwhile, the conservatives saw the European alliance as valuable allies against the liberals. Napoleon III was interested in reviving French interests across the globe. However, the Spanish and British governments were not interested in establishing an empire in Mexico. When the French captured Mexico City, their ambitions became apparent to the rest of the world. The British and Spanish, as well as the Polish exiles and the Ottoman volunteers, pulled out of Mexico, and France was left with no help from the rest of the world. Meanwhile, the American forces were advancing upon the conservatives up north in Cholula and Chihuahua. The French army and Napoleon celebrated their victory in Mexico City, but their celebrations would soon cease because the civil war in Mexico was at a turning point.
The Turning Point
In 1863, America won several battles against the conservatives in the northern provinces of Mexico. Meanwhile, down south in Mexico City, Napoleon III invited Maximilian, now Archduke of Austria, over to be the emperor of Mexico. This caused the Mexican populace to be outraged that a foreign ruler had the throne. In addition, the Mexicans had established a healthy democracy in their nation, which they liked very much, and they did not want someone who was not elected to take their throne. Back north, the conservatives were pushing back the U.S. and the liberals to the Pacific coast and northwestern Mexico. The conservatives, contrary to popular belief, established Maximilian as their leader. In response, the U.S. Secretary of State, William Henry Seward, disapproved of the new French puppet government. However, America could not increase its involvement because of the growing U.S. Civil War. Napoleon III was beginning to be antagonized, and both Seward and Lincoln did not want to anger him further.
The French Defeat
Because Napoleon III was tormented, he was likely to intervene in the us on the Confederates’ side. In South America, the countries there wanted to make a diplomatic solution to the conflict, but we rejected the offer. However, the Mexican minister to the United States worked carefully to build American support for the liberal cause. Because of this, Seward began to show more support for the liberals. Back south in central Mexico, where the Mexican Empire was located, a significant battle was about to start: the Battle of Puebla. The French army spread out from Mexico City to conquer more of Mexico. The fortified city of Puebla blocked the French route. The French general Charles Latrille Laurencez ordered a charge up the steep Cerro de Guadalupe to break the Mexican position. He broke the Mexican line and laid siege to Puebla. Puebla had 30,000 Mexicans defending it and had used up all its ammo and food. The city surrendered, and most soldiers were sent to France as prisoners. In 1867, the Mexicans retook the town, which is why the Cinco de Mayo holiday is celebrated today.
The French Withdrawal
In 1867, when the battle of Puebla was won for the Mexicans, the US Civil War ended. Sensing defeat, Maximillian implemented more liberal policies to win over the liberals, which alienated his conservative allies. Without support from his traditional allies and less and less support from the French government day by day, Maximillian began to back down. Up north on the Mexican-Texan border, U.S. General Ulysses S. Grant invaded Mexico and started to proceed to the capital. Back in France, the war in Mexico was depleting the French coffers, causing more financial ruin already in significant numbers in France. In 1866, Napoleon III ordered the replacement of his troops with American ones and finally pulled out of Mexico in November 1867. Back in Austria, support for Maximilian was waning. Without support, Maximilian started to go home. On the way to his ship, Maximilian was caught by Mexican forces. He was court-martialed and sentenced to death by firing squad. This was the end of all European influence in Mexico.
Conclusion & Aftermath
In 1868, the dust began to settle in Mexico. The liberal government returned to the capital and started a new age in Mexican history. This would last until the Mexican Revolution in the early 20th century. The Mexican economy began to flourish without European taxes, quotas, and tariffs. Benito Juárez was celebrated as a national hero across the country, and many statues were erected to commemorate his victories. He and his government won multiple elections in the legislature and the presidency after that. Napoleon III was devastated by the loss in the intervention. He started to get paranoid and, in 1852, declared himself an absolute dictator, following in the footsteps of his uncle. France would continue its militaristic and financial decline and no longer be the continent’s master. A new country, Prussia, would take the seat as the master of Europe and would be the origin of the nation of Germany. Austria would still be in the background and, no longer the Holy Roman Emperor, would not play a significant role in European politics.
Prussia would go to war with France and cause a resounding defeat on the nation. This caused Napoleon III to be captured by the Germans and sent to Berlin to be kept. He would later be exiled to London and would die in his apartment, aged 64. A new national holiday would be formed in Mexico to celebrate the Battle of Puebla. This holiday would later be known as “Cinco de Mayo.” During this holiday, the people would hold grand celebrations throughout the streets of Mexico. Mexican immigrants traveled to the United States and spread the holiday around the U.S. Mexicans in the U.S. nationalized the holiday, and it started to be celebrated across the U.S. It became so widespread that the United States began to celebrate it more than Mexico. However, most people in the United States today do not know why it is celebrated; they go along with the celebrations. So, today, Cinco de Mayo is celebrated every year, and with this, the French Intervention in Mexico is remembered, if not officially, across the United States.
